The Stanford Prison Experiment And Its Effects On Social...

The Stanford Prison Experiment and its Effects on Social Psychology The Stanford Prison Experiment is one of the most notorious and unique experiments in modern social psychology history. A psychologist named Philip Zimbardo executed the Stanford Prison Experiment in 1971. His goal for this experiment was to show that the prison guards and convicts would fall into pre-defined roles, rather than following their own judgment and morals. The experiment was unsuccessful, but it produced some results that give an insight into human psychology and social behavior. Philip Zimbardo earned his Bachelor’s degree at Brooklyn College in 1954, triple majoring in anthropology, psychology, and sociology. He then went to earn his Master’s degree in 1955, and Ph.D. in 1959, in psychology at Yale University. In 1968 Zimbardo became a faculty member at Stanford University and has remained his work there ever since. Philip Zimbardo spent most of his earliest years of his career leading behavioral studies that focused on biological processes such as hunger and thirst. It was not until the 1960’s, that he then began to focus on social psychology issues, such as conformity. His experiment on prison life showed how fast a person could dissolve their own identity to fit into the social roles that are expected of them. The results and outcomes of this experiment are still important in modern day psychology. To conduct the Stanford Prison Experiment, the psychologist constructed a mock prisonShow MoreRelatedI Chose The Topic Of Prison Psychology With A Focus On1198 Words   |  5 Pagestopic of prison psychology with a focus on the Stanford prison experiment and the psychological effects of systematic abuse. Zimbardo, Philip G. Revisiting the Stanford Prison Experiment: A Lesson in the Power of Situation. The Chronicle of Higher Education, no. 30, 2007. EBSCOhost, ezproxy.uhd.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=truedb=edsgbcAN=edsgcl.161992127site=eds-livescope=site. The Stanford Prison Experiment was a study on the psychological effects of authorityRead MoreThe Stanford Prison Experiment At Stanford University1239 Words   |  5 Pagesstudent at Stanford University in California. Like most college kids, you are strapped for cash, so you begin to seek a part time job. You see an ad for a psychology study that pays $15 per day posted in the local newspaper, and decide to submit an application. Little do you know at the time, that the study you are applying for will become known worldwide and create such an impact that it remains relevant over 44 years later. This infamous study is known today as the Stanford Prison Experiment. The experimentRead MoreThe Field Of Social Psychology1378 Words   |  6 PagesIn the field of Social Psychology, numerous studies have been made about different types of behavior and what causes humans to act a certain way. There are also different specific types of behavior that have been studied, such as aggression. On e important study made about signs and effects of aggression would be Stanford University’s Dr. Philip Zimbardo’s study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison. His research was conducted along with two of his graduate assistants by the name of CraigRead MoreThe Media Of My Choice Was The Stanford Prison Experiment Essay1365 Words   |  6 Pageschoice was the Stanford Prison Experiment movie. The movie gave an in-depth view on how the experiment came about and what happened during the process. Within this paper I will give details on what exactly the Stanford Prison Experiment was, different topics we learned over the course of Social Psychology that relate to the Stanford Prison Experiment and the affects it had on me and could have on others. The Stanford Prison Experiment took place August 14-20th 1971. It was an experiment conducted byRead MoreSocial Psychology, By Philip Zimbardo1143 Words   |  5 PagesSocial Psychology is a branch of psychology that tries to find out how people behavior is influenced by others and the development of human interactions. According to the psychology professor and author of the book Fourty Studies that Changed Psychology, Roger Hock: â€Å"Social psychology may also be the research domain that contains the greatest number of landmark studies.† By this being said, social psychology contains a great amount of pioneers that have helped the development of psychology as a scienceRead MoreThe Stanford Prison Experiment1658 Words   |  7 Pagesimportant issues today. The Stanford Prison Experiment, conducted over 40 years ago, brought these ethical issues into the limelight and remains one of the most controversial studies in the history of studying human behavior. This paper aims to define ethics, describe risk/benefit ratio, provide a brief background on the Stanford Prison Experiment, and evaluate the impact it has had on psychological research. â€Æ' The Stanford Prison Experiment The Stanford Prison Experiment probably tops a lot of listsRead MoreA Critical Review Of Zimbardo s Stanford Prison Experiment And The Bbc Prison Study1510 Words   |  7 PagesA critical review of Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment and the BBC Prison Study Introduction Tyranny is defined: an unequal social system involving the arbitrary or oppressive use of power by one group over another (Reicher Haslam, 2006). The link made between groups and tyranny has a long history in social psychology being prominent nearly 2,400 years ago with the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle believed that collective rule leads to moral irresponsibility, haphazardness and isRead MoreZimbardo Research Paper1029 Words   |  5 Pages The Stanford Prison Experiment was a study conducted in 1971 by Dr. Phillip Zimbardo. According to Dr. Steve Taylor (2007), â€Å"It’s probably the best known psychological study of all time.† (Classic Studies in Psychology, 2007). Zimbardo stated that the point was to see what would happen if he put â€Å"really good people in a bad place† (Dr. Zimbardo, 2007). He did this during a time were most college students were protesting for peace and were against anything authoritarian. The experiment containedR ead MoreSocial Psychological Explanations For The Emergence Of Public Disorder1287 Words   |  6 PagesIdentify and describe social psychological explanations for the emergence of public disorder. Public disorder can be defined as any behavioural act in the public eye that goes against societal norms. This may be an act of an individual or from members of a larger group. Gustave le Bon (1895) categorises a group or â€Å"crowd† as those possessing characteristics including â€Å"impulsiveness, irritability, incapacity to reason, the absence of judgement and of the critical spirit, the exaggeration of theRead MoreSocial Psychology Experiment : The Stanford Prison Experiment967 Words   |  4 Pagesfamous social psychology experiment, The Stanford Prison Experiment, many have asked whether or not this experiment can really portray how imprisonment can effect an individual. While some say that this experiment is a great representation of the effects caused due to imprisonment, others argue that the experiment was not realistic enough to say it had real effects. Social psychologists Craig Haney and Philip Zimbardo, also the creators of the Stanford Prison Experiment, st ate that the experiment stimulated

Definition Argument Outline On Marriage - 1900 Words

Claudia Campbell Professor Jacobs English 112-62B April 3, 2016 Definition Argument Outline Marriage Thesis: Marriage can be defined as 1. Background A. B. 2. Point 1 A. B. 3. Point 2 A. B. 4. Point 3 A. B. 5. Opposing Argument 1 A. B. 6. Refute 1 A. B. 7. Opposing Argument 2 A. B. 8. Refute 2 A. B. Claudia Campbell Professor Jacobs English 112-62B April 3, 2016 Definition Argument Essay Marriage Was anyone aware that forty to fifty percent or more of marriages will end in divorce (â€Å"Marriage and Divorce†)? It could be said that one of the largest contributing factors to that is how everyone does not really know what marriage is anymore. The entire Western Civilization is spending so much time trying to figure out what marriage means. They are letting their own marriages crumble. Is a marriage made to be between a man and a woman, or does a marriage really boil down to some form of gender roles? One way to try and decipher this mystery would be to look for the definition of the word itself. Marriage Marriage has been defined differently throughout the centuries. Today Merriam-Webster defines marriage as, â€Å"the state of being united to a person of the opposite sex as husband or wife in a consensual and contractual relationship recognized by law† (â€Å"Marriage†). Due to the recent Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and Transsexual or LGBT movement, Merriam-Webster also added a second line to the definition reading â€Å"The state of beingShow MoreRelatedThe Changed Definition Of Marriage1592 Words   |  7 PagesThe Recently Changed Definition of Marriage On June 26th, 2015, the United States Supreme Court voted to legalize same-sex marriage nationwide and in doing so, rattled the belief system of many Christians around the country. Many took to social media and with the terror and panic of Chicken Little cried, â€Å"The sky is falling†, while others lashed out in hateful speech towards the lawmakers and the homosexual community that celebrated their newly given liberty. As Christians begin to look towardRead MorePolicy Advice Memorandum: Equality of Marriage1326 Words   |  5 PagesEquality of Marriage Issue: It is becoming increasingly difficult to defend the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA). One of the Republican congresspersons who helped write the act is currently opposing it. In Lehmans words, many Republicans believe its only a matter of time until DOMA is repealed, (cited by Bendery, 2012, p. 2). Therefore, it would be wise for the president to take an affirmative, and firm, stances in favor of legislation that expressly and unequivocally supports marriage equalityRead MoreCultural and Ethnic Studies682 Words   |  3 Pagesestablish before hand the scope and limitations of your paper and this will be the foundation of your research paper outline. Basically, your outline will constitute three main parts namely the Introduction, the Body and the Conclusion. But to make sure your paper is complete, consult your instructor for specific parts he/she wants to be included in your research paper. Sample outlines for research papers will be given later on. But first, let us discuss t he main parts of your paper and what informationRead MoreResearch Paper Outline Example980 Words   |  4 PagesResearch Paper Outline Examples * Main Page * Research * Foundations * Academic * Write Paper * For Kids by  Explorable.com  (Nov 5, 2011)    Research Paper Outline Examples This is an article with a few research paper outline examples. Creating an outline is the first thing you should do before you start working on your research paper. Write a Paper * 1Writing a Paper * 2Outline * 2.1Write an Outline * 2.2Outline Examples * 3Research Question Read MoreCompare and Contrast Two Views of Gay Marriage Essay815 Words   |  4 PagesSullivan had written supporting gay marriage in America. Bennett started out by first issuing two key points as to what divides the proponents and opponents of same-sex marriages. The two articles are derived from Sibylle Gruber’s Constructing Others: Constructing Ourselves edition. Bennett notions that legalizing same-sex marriage would weaken the meaning of it and outlines what the basic concept of marriage is. Throughout the article Bennett argues why same-sex marriage should not be legalized by movingRead MoreSame-sex marriage debate. An essay AGAINST same sex marriages.773 Words   |  3 Pagesevolution of marriage: legalizing homosexual marriages. Not allowing homosexual marriages to be recognized by the government and to be legal would prevent changing a fundamental institution, would prohibit breaching the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and would prevent unthinkable consequences. Marriage has been around for as long as anyone can remember. And after all this time, it has changed very little in the eyes of the law. Every major religion and culture has embraced marriage as a unique relationshipRead MoreThe Uk Civil Partnership Act 20041670 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction The introduction of the article involves analysis of various literature and researches on the policies and laws that govern lesbian and gay equality. The mention of the different definitions and arguments pave the way for the introduction of the UK Civil Partnership Act 2004 (Taylor 589). According to the introduction part of the reading, same-sex legal recognition has always revolved around two specific positions that are framing the lesbian law towards equality or view acknowledgmentRead MoreThe Reasoning For My Grades Being B s And That Was My Own Fault974 Words   |  4 PagesStrengths while writing essays would be having detail in my work, thinking of ideas that will be worthy of three to five pages, and finding sources that work well with my arguments. Writing essays can be difficult when I don t outline or brainstorm, instead I free write by typing what I am thinking. It would be useful to write an outline because sometimes while I’m typing I forget what I’m thinking. Brainstorming would help write essays faster and easier because the essay is there, just need to be explainedRead MoreExploration Of A Real World Issue Of Faith1651 Words   |  7 PagesSame Sex Marriage Donniella Davis UCOR 1043/1001 Professor Ben Thomas June 5 th 2016 . Look back twenty-five years ago, on same sex marriage was aRead MoreThe And Structure Of Family1095 Words   |  5 PagesThe definition and structure of family has significantly developed throughout the years, with liberal perspectives suggesting alternative family arrangements. In 1973, Michael Young and Peter Willmott conducted studies of family life within the London area and concluded that the development and changes within the structure of family life can be sorted into three categories of time. (Van Krieken et al. 2017, p. 107). The pre-industrial family (up until the early 19th century), the early industrial

Muet Free Essays

Extracurricular activities are a good chance for every student to improve himself/herself in many different ways. These activities are offered by educational establishments, but they are far more interesting than common lessons. In SMKPJ, the MUET drama festival had became one of the compulsory activities for all the Lower Six students. We will write a custom essay sample on Muet or any similar topic only for you Order Now As one of the participants in MUET drama festival, I strongly agree that the MUET drama festival should be made as a yearly event for the Lower Six students. The MUET drama competition had contributed many benefits to the students. Drama competition is a tremendous way to build confidence. By overcoming innate fear of speaking in front of others, they are stepping outside of your comfort zone in a very healthy way. The skills you acquire translate to increased confidence in the their life as well as improved communication skills with others. If the ‘old one’ suffered from doubt and anxiety, they will find it gradually replaced by a new self image. In this one they will see themselves standing tall, talking easily and communicating well. Besides that, the involvement in the group activity and interaction with other people develops students’ socializing skills and they become more open with people. Putting themselves forward makes it easier for you to meet others. The increase in sociability which is a crucial ability for personal development and an important criteria for job interviews in their future. People’s ability to make friends or to become a part of a group promotes self-confidence and creates a better atmosphere of liability among people. Moreover, the drama competition requires students to embody various characters with situations, personalities and life style which vastly different from the student’s own. In order to portray the character realistically, students have to find ways to relate themselves with the character. This practice of putting themselves in someone else’s shoes enhances students’ ability to empathize with people in their personal lives and promotes compassion and tolerance for others. Furthermore, participating in drama competitions requires great reserves of imagination. The drama requires students to make creative choice, think of new ideas, and interpret familiar materials in new ways . It is a fun way of challenging students to think quickly, to act on impulse and to react to their surroundings. The consistent practice of using their imagination can translate into success at other art forms as well as creative problem solving skills. As Albert Einstein said,† imagination is more important than knowledge. † Last but not least, through drama, students learn different forms of communication which help in developing language and communication skill. They are encouraged to express themselves both verbally and through facial expressions and body language. It improves the voice projection, articulation of words, fluency with language and persuasive speech which is key to making them better and more effective communicators. Subsequently, the listening and observation skills are developed through the process of rehearsing, performing and even being an audience which other groups were performing. In conclusion, it is important that the MUET drama festival should be continued organized and make it as one of the traditions of SMKPJ. I hopes that not only the Form Six students but the whole school includes all the students and teachers should give their supports to the drama festival. Thus, the MUET drama festival can be held successfully every year. How to cite Muet, Papers

Iraq`s Problems Essay Example For Students

Iraq`s Problems Essay The topic I choose was Iraq and its past and still ongoing problems with theUnited Nations. The reason I choose this topic as oppose to another topic is warand the United Nations has always fascinated me. With Saddam Hussein still beingstubborn with UN weapons inspectors it was incredibly easy to obtain informationregarding this topic. The Los Angles Times; California; Feb 12 2000; The newestarticle I attained was from the February 12 edition of the Los Angles Times. Itwas entitled Compromise Broached on issue of Arms Inspectors in Iraq. Itdiscussed how Iraq is still refusing to allow the UN weapons inspector into thenation. It also talks about the UN feelings on the chance of inspectors everbeing allowed to do their job. Apparently the Vice President has no intention ofever letting the inspectors into the country. Last Thursday he said, Thereshall be no return of the so-called inspection teams. We reject the infiltrationby spies using such cover. In my humble opinion it would make life in Iraqbetter if the inspectors where just allowed into the country. Most importantlysanctions the UN has placed upon Iraq would be removed. Apparently the reallydont care about the sanctions according to their deputy foreign ministerNizar Hamdoun who said they can live without sanctions forever. The UN hasa different opinion they believe they cannot. I believe they can, they have donefine up to this point and I think they will continue to do fine. I think Iraqhas many things they dont want the UN to know about such as chemical andbiological weapons. They are a threat and need to be dealt with accordingly. NewYork Times; New York; Feb 8, 2000; Barbara Crossette The next article I choosewas from the February 8 issue of the New York Times. This article was entitledIraq Suspected of Secret War Effort. This article sort of scared me. Itwas about in Britain, research and intelligence experts, also convinced thatthere are more germ warfare agents left in Iraq than previously known, h avesuggested that Iraq may have produced the organism that causes bubonic plague. But no evidence has been published in support of that theory, but Americanexperts say, and United Nations inspectors found not trace of the plague inIraq. This is only because Iraq not allowing them to inspect and when the UNinspectors where allowed in they where only allowed to inspect certainareas. This statement made by the so-called American experts was bull*censored*;they only said to comfort the American public. This expert Milton Leitenbergfrom the Center for International and Security Studies at the University ofMaryland has been collecting information about Iraqi weapons sites andactivities from two Iraqi defectors. Milton is really not sure if the new thingis a virus and not a bacterial agent but he said in an interview that Hans Blix,the new chief inspector for Iraq might need to focus his attention on Biologicalweapons. Milton and other British experts say inspector will have to be moreaggressive in demanding access in Iraq. I think so to, biological weapons areillegal as a form of warfare since the Geneva Convention outlawed them. And thefact that there are not allowed to be used as a form of warfare should be reasonenough to be more aggressive not to mention the fact that these weapons of massdestruction will be if not are already in the hands of a mad man! Also accordingto this article the eradication of biological weapons in Iraq may be asimportant or more important to the people of Iraq as to the outside world. Experts working with the United Nations Special Commission, the firstdisarmament task force created for Iraq after the Gulf War said some of thebacterial and viral agents Iraq was producing then had little application forwar. Evidently a fungal agent called aflatoxin can lead to liver cancer, androtavirus, which causes diarrhea in children and the elderly. This is justanother reason for the inspectors to be more insistent in their attempt to gainentry into Iraq, their military compounds, and laboratories. World HistoryVolume II; William J. Duiker Jackson J. Spielvogel Pages 1136-1137 Duikerprovided some insight on the history of this conflict. According to DuikerSaddam Hussein, assumed power in Baghdad in 1979, then accused Iran ofviolating the territorial agreement and launched an attack on his neighbor.(1136) It seems Saddam has been a problem from the beginning and should havebeen taken care of before he became a real threat like he is now. Duiker alsosays during the war between Iraq and Iran poison gas was used on civilians andalso defenseless children were used in the minefields. Then in August 1990Husseins military forces went into the small country of Kuwait and claimedthat they were stealing oil from Iraqi land. This is when the United Nationsdecided to get involved, after all not only was this small defenseless countryunder attack but our nations oil supply was endangered. Really in my opinionthis is the main reason we got involved not for the moral reasons but thefinancial reasons. From here the book taught me no new information. We restoredpeace to Kuwait and destroyed much of Saddams forces. The only problem is wedid not destroy enough of his forces because they are better equipped than theyever were. I have herd that Saddam if he did posses such chemical weapons thatthe article spoke of he does not have the launch capability, meaning he does notposses sufficient I.C.B.M.s (Inter- Continental Ballistic Missiles) but how longbefore he does posses su ch devices. Only time will tell but for now it is hightime we tell Saddam and the Iraqi government to let us in or else threatenanother military strike maybe even nuclear attack. Annotated Bibliography Thetopic I choose was Iraq and its past and still ongoing problems with the UnitedNations. The reason I choose this topic as oppose to another topic is war andthe United Nations has always fascinated me. With Saddam Hussein still beingstubborn with UN weapons inspectors it was incredibly easy to obtain informationregarding this topic. The Los Angles Times; California; Feb 12 2000; The newestarticle I attained was from the February 12 edition of the Los Angles Times. Itwas entitled Compromise Broached on issue of Arms Inspectors in Iraq. Itdiscussed how Iraq is still refusing to allow the UN weapons inspector into thenation. It also talks about the UN feelings on the chance of inspectors everbeing allowed to do their job. Apparently the Vice President has no intention ofever letting th e inspectors into the country. Last Thursday he said, Thereshall be no return of the so-called inspection teams. We reject the infiltrationby spies using such cover. In my humble opinion it would make life in Iraqbetter if the inspectors where just allowed into the country. Most importantlysanctions the UN has placed upon Iraq would be removed. Apparently the reallydont care about the sanctions according to their deputy foreign ministerNizar Hamdoun who said they can live without sanctions forever. The UN hasa different opinion they believe they cannot. I believe they can, they have donefine up to this point and I think they will continue to do fine. I think Iraqhas many things they dont want the UN to know about such as chemical andbiological weapons. They are a threat and need to be dealt with accordingly. NewYork Times; New York; Feb 8, 2000; Barbara Crossette The next article I choosewas from the February 8 issue of the New York Times. This article was entitledIraq Suspected of Secret War Effort. This article sort of scared me. Itwas about in Britain, research and intelligence experts, also convinced thatthere are more germ warfare agents left in Iraq than previously known, havesuggested that Iraq may have produced the organism that causes bubonic plague. The Catcher in the Rye EssayBut no evidence has been published in support of that theory, but Americanexperts say, and United Nations inspectors found not trace of the plague inIraq. This is only because Iraq not allowing them to inspect and when the UNinspectors where allowed in they where only allowed to inspect certainareas. This statement made by the so-called American experts was bull*censored*;they only said to comfort the American public. This expert Milton Leitenbergfrom the Center for International and Security Studies at the University ofMaryland has been collecting information about Iraqi weapons sites andactivities from two Iraqi defectors. Milton is really not sure if the new thingis a virus and not a bacterial agent but he said in an interview that Hans Blix,the new chief inspector for Iraq might need to focus his attention on Biologicalweapons. Milton and other British experts say inspector will have to be moreaggressive in demanding access in Iraq. I think so to, bi ological weapons areillegal as a form of warfare since the Geneva Convention outlawed them. And thefact that there are not allowed to be used as a form of warfare should be reasonenough to be more aggressive not to mention the fact that these weapons of massdestruction will be if not are already in the hands of a mad man! Also accordingto this article the eradication of biological weapons in Iraq may be asimportant or more important to the people of Iraq as to the outside world. Experts working with the United Nations Special Commission, the firstdisarmament task force created for Iraq after the Gulf War said some of thebacterial and viral agents Iraq was producing then had little application forwar. Evidently a fungal agent called aflatoxin can lead to liver cancer, androtavirus, which causes diarrhea in children and the elderly. This is justanother reason for the inspectors to be more insistent in their attempt to gainentry into Iraq, their military compounds, and laboratories. World HistoryVolume II; William J. Duiker Jackson J. Spielvogel Pages 1136-1137 Duikerprovided some insight on the history of this conflict. According to DuikerSaddam Hussein, assumed power in Baghdad in 1979, then accused Iran ofviolating the territorial agreement and launched an attack on his neighbor.(1136) It seems Saddam has been a problem from the beginning and should havebeen taken care of before he became a real threat like he is now. Duiker alsosays during the war between Iraq and Iran poison gas was used on civilians andalso defenseless children were used in the minefields. Then in August 1990Husseins military forces went into the small country of Kuwait and claimedthat they were stealing oil from Iraqi land. This is when the United Nationsdecided to get involved, after all not only was this small defenseless countryunder attack but our nations oil supply was endangered. Really in my opinionthis is the main reason we got involved not for the moral reasons but thefinancial reasons. From here the book taught me no new information. We restoredpeace to Kuwait and destroyed much of Saddams forces. The only problem is wedid not destroy enough of his forces because they are better equipped than theyever were. I have herd that Saddam if he did posses such chemical weapons thatthe article spoke of he does not have the launch capability, meaning he does notposses sufficient I.C.B.M.s (Inter- Continental Ballistic Missiles) but how longbefore he does posses su ch devices. Only time will tell but for now it is hightime we tell Saddam and the Iraqi government to let us in or else threatenanother military strike maybe even nuclear attack.

Jazz History free essay sample

Poetry can be defined as poetry that demonstrates jazz-like rhythm or the feeling of improvisation. During the sasss many poets began to experiment with the conventional forms of writing with rhythm which led to the invention of Jazz Poetry. Poetry and Jazz seemed to both evolve into each other which led to the merge that became known as Jazz Poetry. Jazz poetry has been an unorthodox style of writing since It was Invented In the sasss, The reason It has been considered out of the mainstream is that it was invented by African American artists n the sasss when segregation had not ended long ago. There were still Jim Crower laws In effect when this evolution was occurring. There was also a Renaissance occurring with this evolution called the Harlem Renaissance. This time In American History could be described as HOT NIGHTS and cool jazz. Steamy sidewalks and fancy dressers. We will write a custom essay sample on Jazz History or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page .. Songs of the soul and songs of the body The lilt of gentle laughter and the penetrating wail of the blues.. . Harlem was the home of many African American poets and musicians which was the perfect breeding grounds for creating jazz poetry.Harlem is a community in New York that lies in the northern half of the boroughs of Manhattan. Earliest poets were coined as Jazz poets there were not True Jazz Poets. The poets who only referred to jazz in their poems were called Jazz-Related Poets. Jazz poets would have to create a rhythm and imitates Jazz in its words and delivery. There were many different artists that had huge impacts on jazz poetry including one of the most famous; Louis Armstrong. It was said that Armstrong is the best Jazz musician to ever had lived. Louis Armstrong influenced many Jazz poets such as Mina LOL, andLongs Hughes. Longs Hughes is considered the founder of the Jazz Poetry genre since no artist before him could merge Jazz and poetry together as he did. Hughes was born on February 1, 1902 in Joplin Missouri. He began writing poetry in the eighth grade and was elected the class poet. He was encouraged by his father to pursue a more practical career and attended college for a short amount of time but continued to write poetry. Luckily for the artistic community he decided to drop out of his program of study and pursue a writing career. His first poem published was also one of his cost famous and still is today and was entitled The Negro Speaks of Rivers. Many of his writings appeared in the NAACP magazines and other publications. One of Hughes favorite past-times became listening to blues, and Jazz while writing his poetry. This had a profound influence on his Blues. He moved to Harlem in 1924, during the Harlem Renaissance. During this time he became very popular and his works all flourished. In 1925 he decided to move to Washington D. C. ND there he spent even more time in Jazz and blues clubs. He was quoted as saying l tried to write the poems like the songs hey sang on seventh street. These songs had the pulse beat of the people who keep on going He died on May 22, 1967 of cancer. His home in Harlem was given landmark status by the New York Preservation Committee. Here is one of his Jazz poems: Negro Dancers Longs Hughes Me an ma babys Got two MO ways, Two MO ways to do De Charleston Dad, dad, Dad, dad, dad Soft light on the tables, Music gay, Brown-skin steppers In a cabaret.White folks, laugh White folks, pray Two MO ways to do De Charleston 1926 Jazz Poetry embodied what society was like in the time that it was written. Jazz Poetry also prospered from the closing of the sea port in New Orleans, musicians were forced up the Mississippi to find work. Chicago and New York were most affected by this because they popular because of prohibition which resulted in more Jobs being created for Jazz musicians and other forms of entertainment which led to more involvement in the entertainment business.Jazz poetry still remains today but has gone under many changes. It evolved even more in the sasss when it passed through the beat generation. The beat generation was composed of mainly whites that turned jazz poetry from racial pride and individuality into spontaneity and freedom. Jazz poetry became seen as statements against society and the regular flow of life by outsiders. The Beat Generation started out as a very small group of people. It consisted of four men who met in upper-Manhattan in the mid asss.They had a couple more followers Join before moving to San Francisco and had five more men Join their group. They all struggled very hard to get anything of theirs published. It was an awe inspiring experience to see how these men would keep each other from giving up. They finally caught a break when they had a famous poetry reading at the six gallery in San Francisco. After this first group of beat writers had been popularized another wave would sweep in. Here is a poem by a beat generations. Rapid by Gary Snyder Lay down these words Before your mind like rocks. Laced solid, by hands In choice of place, set Before the body of the mind Solidity of bark, leaf or wall rapid of things: Cobble of milky way, straying planets, These poems, people, lost ponies with Dragging saddles and rocky sure-foot trails. The worlds like an endless four-dimensional Game of Go. Ants and pebbles In the thin loam, each rock a word a creek-washed stone Granite: ingrained with torment of fire and weight Crystal and sediment linked hot all change, in thoughts, As well as things. This poem would be recited while some kind of musical interment would make a beat in the background. Bongos are a very popular instrument used when reciting poetry. In the sasss and asss Jazz poetry was reinvented as a source of racial pride by Leroy Jones who changed his name to Impair Bark. Bark was born on October 7, 1934 in Newark New Jersey. He Joined the U. S. Air Force but was kicked out in 1954 for suspension that he was a communist. His commanding officer had found soviet writings and declared that he had broken his oath of duty.He started working in a record warehouse which stemmed his interest for jazz. He came into contact with some members of the new beat generation which would later heavily influence his writings of poetry. Bark traces Jazz and the blues back to African Americans. After the death of Malcolm X he Harlem since he considered himself a cultural nationalist. Bark was arrested after he caught illegally carrying a weapon ND resisting arrest during a riot after Martin Luther King Jar. Had been assassinated. He then spent three years in Jail.Bark received many awards and honors in his life and actually became a Professor. The last form of Jazz Poetry is the modern form, Modern Jazz poetry is lyrics incorporated by hip-hop and rap artists by the use of a beat. Rap is paralleled to Jazz poetry in the way that rap is improvised lyrics to a beat. This captures the spontaneous, improvised portion of Jazz poetry. Just like Jazz poetry, raps lyrics are focused on the social situation of the time and cultural issues. It is argued by many people that rap is not a viable comparison of poetry. That its Just an overrated fad of the time. Hip -hop came into being in the early sasss and became a large part of American culture in the asss. Hip-hop or rap consists of a rapper, or poet, and a DC, the person who creates a beat. To have a successful set of lyrics you must have a good beat and be able to master the use of literary devices such as assonance, alliteration, and rhyme. Hip-hop began in the Bronx in the inner-city by mostly African American youth. It is now a commercially popular music genre and is part of the American Mainstream. Jazz History free essay sample Era Everyone has heard or at least has heard of Jazz music. The bands, the singers, and the Instruments make you want to get up and start dancing! Jazz music has been around longer than you would think and Is still a very popular type of music today. But do people know of the back story? How jazz started out, how it matured or even how today, it is used in deferent ways in music that you might not even notice? Not really. Jazz music may be one of the biggest impacts in our world today and we dont even see how.Jazz originally started out as sound like every other type of music does. But what makes them different is how the music is played; in a specific way with specific instruments to make that sound. To mix those parts together you would need influences to Improve the music in its own way. We will write a custom essay sample on Jazz History or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In Jazz, there were influences of European harmonies and American Instruments (Barber 53) and particularly the music of African- Americans who were determined to keep their own traditions alive (Barber 53) during slavery times around the sass.The music of the slaves began In New Orleans at a place called the Congo Square (Today known as Louis Armstrong Park) where they played spirituals, blues, and ragtime music and chanted and danced in circular patterns to the music. Then they mixed that music with European-based military music (Schuman 31). All this mixed together developed into the earliest form of jazz. Years later, Charles Buddy Bolder was named the father of Jazz for changing the instruments from strings to brass instruments. People ad began to call it lass. Over time it became known as jazz (Schuman 31). The exact history of Jazz is uncertain, but it is generally accepted that the music was born in New Orleans, came north to Chicago by way of traveling musicians, then spread to New York City-?and from there around the world. (Woos 27). Dance bands were also part of the Jazz history. They would sometimes dance to the music the musicians played. A typical band would have a front line which had a clarinet, trombone, and ornate or trumpet, and they were supported by a rhythm section that had a guitar or banjo, piano, bass or tuba, and drums.Jazz is a mixture of different styles; it is not just a single tune. The different styles depend on where they come from and how it was developed there. In Chicago, Jazz is an expression of cultural diversity (Kenney). Jazz players performed deferent styles all over the city in clubs, concerts and festivals. It still goes on today in the 21st century. In New Orleans, it is represented as reminder of where the African Americans come from and their rich, and prideful culture that they valued In slavery times.Instruments werent always Just used for music. During the Steno Rebellion in 1739, drums had been used to a signal an attack on the white population. (Gila). That caused South Carolina to ban the use of drums towards slaves. The Georgia slave codes were also established to prevent drums, horns and other loud Instruments. In order to convert the African Americans to Westernizes music, they used religion based ideas such as the Hymns andIt actually made the slaves do the opposite and want to play more, but enrich the European idioms with African Traditions. And Jazz is Just one of the genres that were produced through this enrichment. Jazz has a rich history that matured over a long period of time. And since no one knows exactly when it started, for all we know, it could have been around for over 300 years. The Jazz music you hear today may Just have a little part of how they played in the sass but its the new additions that everyone knows and that greatly impact our world today.

Federal Budget Cycle

Federal Budget Cycle Passing of budgets is a regular exercise that mainly occurs annually. There are several stages that accompany public budgeting process, which entail preparation and submission, approval, execution, and audit and evaluation. Budget process is a timeline activity with preparation of the budget as the first step in budget cycle. For Federal budget, budget preparation is concerned with compiling a draft budget, for presenting to the congress.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Federal Budget Cycle specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Preparation of the budget is an internal activity for the executives. During federal budget preparation, the fiscal policy is set followed by determining the total available resources for spending. At preparation juncture, the office of management negotiates with appropriate departments about allocation of funds. However, the office of management is responsible for putting expenditure ceiling for each department. After drafting the budget, the office of management presents it to the president for review and make final ruling mainly on the contentious issues (Lee, Johnson Joyce, 2008). After coming with a comprehensive budget draft, the present takes the budget to the congress for approval. The budget has to get the approval of the congress in order to become effective. Before the approval, the congress scrutinizes the budget proposal from the executive. This entail the congress assessing the setting of the fiscal policy, sources of revenues, as well as the expenditures. The role of the congress is to reject, approve, amend and in some cases substitute the budget proposal with their own budget format. Some government budgets requires passing of separate legislations for appropriation and alterations to the tax code. Some governments on the other hand take into consideration a unified budget bill as in the case of the federal budget. However, the most important aspect in this stage is a comprehensive scrutiny of the budget proposal, irrespective of the adopted legislation. In public budget cycle, authorization of all public spending and taxation make sure that the rule of law in public finance. The duration that the budget proposal takes before approval varies from one country to another. In the United States of America, the congress spends approximately eight months in reviewing the budget proposal presented by the executives before making their final ruling. Budget scrutiny takes a considerable time to increase its influence. Once the congress approves the budget proposal, the budget process proceeds to the next stage of implementation (Nikol, 2011).Advertising Looking for coursework on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The execution of the budget commences with the starting of the fiscal year. The implementation of the approved budget is mostly in the powers o f the executives. The congress and the treasury play a significant role in ensuring that the apportioning of the funds is as per the approved budget. In some case and mainly in developing nations, budget allocated funds is sometimes used for other purposes rather than the purpose approved. This results to adverse effects on the vulnerable groups that have less political influence. The congress does not allow misallocation of funds already approved for certain spending. To avoid excessive adjustments the congress keeps a close eye on the spending of the allocated money as well as funds apportioning. Moreover, to avoid the undermining of the authority, the through-unwarranted adjustments, Congress make sure that any significant adjustment to the budget is captured in supplement apportions, which has been approved by the congress. During the adjustments, the congress should make sure that there is thorough scrutiny of the proposals presented in similar manner to the scrutiny of the bud get formulation process. Transparency is very important in public budget cycle. The implementation stage in public budget cycle is critical. This is because the allocated funds are likely to be deviated to other spending because of urgent cropping needs. For example, the funds allocated for spending in the infrastructure are often deviated if there is a natural disaster such as floods and storms that require immediate attention. Therefore, despite the highly accurate forecasting process that accompanies the federal budget process, there are some new urgent public spending that are difficult to anticipate and therefore strict adherence to the budget is rare. During the budgeting process, the budget takes in account such considerations. Such concerns help in making sure that the budget remains authoritative even during instances of difficult economic crisis. In response to such eventuality, the contingency reserve sets aside some funds for adapting the budget to cater for the emergenc ies or changing circumstances. In order to ensure accountability and transparency, the congress makes sure that it monitors the use of contingency reserves accordingly. The use of any contingency reserve should follow approval of the congress. The fund set aside as contingency reserve should not be excessive to avoid causing inflation. Apart from the aforementioned aspects, other factors inhibit proper implementation of the federal budget.Advertising We will write a custom coursework sample on Federal Budget Cycle specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For instance, introduction of new legislation like increasing entitlement such social grants brings conflicts with the budget constraints or medium terms of expenditure. Therefore, in the process of formulating policies, appropriate stakeholders should factor in short-term as well as long-term budget implications of the proposed legislations. The audit and evaluation stage follows the execut ion stage (Saturno, 2004). In the audit and evaluation stage, an independent body such as an audit court analyzes the federal accounts and financial statements in order to establish whether the executives used the funds allocated by the budget appropriately. After the audits finish their investigations, they hand over the findings to the congress. After a thorough scrutiny of the findings presented by the audit team, if the congress finds that the audit and evaluation process is effective, the recommendations that by the audit team are incorporated in future budgets. The incorporation of the audit recommendations helps in continuous improvements of future budgets and overall enhancement of public financial management. The law requires the auditors to present their findings as soon as possible after finishing their investigations and compiling the report for accuracy and accountability purposes. Long delays in submitting the auditing findings may hinder accountability in instances wh ere executives who are responsible for any loss of funds have retired or moved to other sectors. Moreover, public interest is mainly on current issues. In addition, delays in submitting the findings may result in difficulties in pursuing disciplinary measures of the responsible culprit (Schick Lostracco, 2000). The public budget cycle for the federal government is important as it ensures that there is a proper allocation of funds for appropriate departments to execute their functions accordingly. In addition, it ensures that there is transparency and accountability for executives who oversee the budget implementation process. In conclusion: budgeting is not an event, but a process. The budget cycle does not occur in a distinct form, but rather in a continuous and interconnected manner. The role of the congress in the budgeting process should entail budget approval and review of audit findings. In addition, the congress should request for important documents used during the drafting phase. Moreover, the congress should access actual and estimates data of the revenues and expenditures to assist in monitoring the implementation process. Reference List Lee, R.D., Johnson, R.W. Joyce, P.G. (2008). Public budgeting systems (8th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. IS.Advertising Looking for coursework on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Nikol, A. (2011). What is Budget Cycle? Retrieved from  https://bizfluent.com/info-7791825-budget-cycle.html Saturno, J. (2004). The Congressional Budget Process: A Brief Overview. New York: Prentice Hall. Schick, A. Lostracco, F. (2000). The Federal Budget: Politics, Policy, Process. New York: Prentice Hall.

How does our design fit in with the design challenge Essay

How does our design fit in with the design challenge - Essay Example The design allows the pedals to adjust their force accordingly, such that when the user’s strength decided the degree of assistance coming from the pedals. As the user exerts more power, the pedals provide less assistance in response to the additional energy. In that sequence, the user can use less force as they cycle uphill and downhill, thus ensuring constant and less tedious movement. Another innovation in the design of the electric bicycle is the flywheel. The flywheel on the bicycle operates on electric power generated from a battery pack. As noted earlier, people have less power to cycle in old age. The electronically powered wheel can spin continuously, enabling the bicycle to keep moving even when the bicycle moves at considerably low speeds. The wheel’s design may assist people in their old age to maintain mobility in instances where they would otherwise use more energy to keep the bicycle mobile. These two features give due empowerment and motivation to the elderly, enabling them to use less energy as they cycle during old age, thus satisfying the requirements of the design

Business management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Business management - Essay Example China is one country which escaped from the current global financial crisis without much damage. As per economic gurus, China’s economy will surpass that of the US’s within 20 years of time. Earlier, China was reluctant in opening their economy, but at present their economy is more transparent than even Japan’s economy. Moreover, China’s trade in 2004 was equal to 70% of its GDP, while that of Japan was 24%. China received $60.6 billion of foreign direct investment in 2004, while Japan, received only $20.1 billion (Overholt, 2005, p.5). China has adopted an economic policy in which they were ready to open the unimportant sectors for the FDI whereas the critical sectors were kept under government control only. They have encouraged privatization in many small scale industries and less important industry sectors and that also in bulk. Xinhua, Chinese daily, has quoted the opinion of the World Bank chief economist, Deepak Bhattasalithe recently. He has told to the Chinese daily that, not only the Chinese Governments effective policies on taxation, but its long-term investment in infrastructure construction also contributed to a more pleasant investment climate (Xinhua, 2004). There is no second opinion about the immense economic developments happening in China. Economic growth of a nation is controlled by many parameters like, political stability, lack of agitations in the society or industrial sectors and also the country’s ability to mobilize the internal resources along with attracting foreign direct investments (FDI) in the country. The people’s living standards, unemployment problems, educational levels, infrastructure developments, overall domestic peace levels and also the relationships with the neighboring countries, all will reflect the economic growth of a nation. China has all the above qualities and hence corporate can think about investing in China. China is the number one country in the world as

Physical Activity for Older Adults Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Physical Activity for Older Adults - Essay Example Apart from the drawing conclusions, the authors of the article have found little nuggets of information that have been overlooked by other researchers, for one reason or another. They are such nuggets that give distinction to the work and make it not only credible but also innovative. The article bases on the specific ways of improving quality of life for older adults including recommendations on intensity, type, frequency, progression and time of exercise followed by disease-specific guidelines. In addition to all the recommendations and exercise instructions, the article deals with the questions of problem-solving and self-monitoring issues. Moreover, the authors give a multilateral analysis of the question considering social and cultural standards, logistics etc. The business of setting up additional material (diagrams, graphs, statistical tables) is taken really very seriously. Illustrative material is carefully chosen and prepared so as to give information. It enlightens and adequately complements the text. Illustrations, text aside, are self-explanatory on their own visual terms. The basic virtues of the illustrations are clarity and relevance. The writers are making an effort to think graphically, to present information conceived visually, not tied to verbal forms. It is not solely a mathematical concept; it is an excellent visual device that helps not only to decide problems of increasing of exercise continuation rates but it also contributes to general desirable health outcomes. All these intensify the projection of the theme. Besides the material used throw direct light upon the point considered in the text. Thus, it is great for the reader to view with ease text and illustrations together. Older Adults and the Arts. The Importance of Aesthetic Forms of Expression in Later Life by Britt-Maj Wilkstrom is a greatly organized article developing an argument about aesthetic forms of expression that contribute to physical and intellectual activities of older adults. The value of the article consists very largely in semi-structured interviews with 166 Swedish participants age 65 to 89. Moreover, it represents bibliographical acknowledgements on the topic in question that specifically and individually document facts and opinions referred to. Without such kind of thematic acknowledgements, the reader would have to read additional sources to get the point. There would only be not proved and doubtful information. And, thus, the source couldn't be considered as a credible one. But besides using a good quantity of well-grounded bibliographical acknowledgements the author leads the reader into the works of others while reasonably comparing the thoughts and ideas. Older Adults and the Arts. The Importance of Aesthetic Forms of Expression in Later Life is a wonderful synthesis of theoretical background and practical qualitative examination, analysis and discussion. The results of this practical study demonstrate that older aesthetic experiences of older adults could actually represent a potential means contributing to successful aging. The figures, data and evidence of this study represent useful practical information both for nurses and physicians to plan and create aesthetic programs in gerontological practice. The

Concepts of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)

Concepts of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) CHAPTER I 1.0 Introduction This paper will labour to explicate the intricacies of enterprise resource planning (ERP), a concept that has long fascinated many in both academic and professional work environments. The United Nations (UN) has expressed the need to implement ERP. As part of their examination into this procedure, the UN has implemented ERP at the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in Pristine, Republic of Kosovo, and other agencies of the UN. As they look into the ramifications of ERP implementation, so does this case study. This study attempts to make predictions of the impact of ERP implementation on the business processes and organisational culture of the United Nations secretariat based on results from the UNDP. 1.1 Introduction to the Problem Since the latter part of the 1990s, firms have rushed to implement enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, e.g., one study showed that more than sixty percent of Fortune 500 companies had adopted an ERP system (G. Stewart et al., 2000). The United Nations, as one of the largest organisations in the world, has lagged behind in adopting the transformation in the management of its resources. The United Nations has been seriously hampered its ability to deliver results effectively and efficiently due to the lack of an integrated information system for managing its resources (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). According to Davis and Olsen (1985), ERP is an integrated system that provides information to support operation management and decision making functions in an organisation. Therefore, the goal of implementing an ERP system and business process reengineering (BPR) is to build an integrated global information system that fully supports the needs of the United Nations, enables the effective management of human, financial and physical resources, and is based on streamlined processes and better practices. (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008) 1.2 Background of the Study 1.2.1 Existing System Currently the United Nations uses an in-house developed system—commonly referred to as Integrated Management Information System (IMIS)—for the management of human, financial and physical resources. The development of IMIS was a milestone in the use of information technology as a discipline that can beneficially affect many if not all areas of administration and management in any given organisation. IMIS was developed as a functionally integrated system, which combines all the departments to support key processes such as human resources management, payroll, finance and accounting, requisitioning and funds control, budget execution and travel management. IMIS was introduced in conjunction with desktop, networked computing and office automation tools such as electronic mail in all offices where IMIS was being used. If an organisation is not yet sure of the need for client-server networks, the state of the art in enterprise-wide computing, it has only to consider the Integrated Management Information System (IMIS) of the United Nations, (Rowe Davis, 1996: 122). The launching of IMIS was subsequently affected and conditioned by major developments in the technological market, and an accelerated shift of focus in the United Nations to field activities. In short, IMIS was designed and developed at a time when the context began to change rapidly and profoundly. Yet, only a few years after the implementation of IMIS, it has become evident that the system cannot take full advantage of the advancement in technology; e.g., even though IMIS is functionally integrated, it was deployed and managed locally at each geographical location, which makes reporting and global management very difficult. The implementation in the United Nations peacekeeping operation was partial, as it is a separate department in t he UN, and was not able to support the supply chain and logistical management. (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008) The IMIS was not an alternative communication technology to paper and telephones, but it involved the synchronization of multiple data sources and the linking of them to several mainframes, (Rowe Davis, 1996: 122). An investment in tactical systems, which includes a stand-alone system and a modular integration into IMIS through interfaces, a bridging system between two different systems to allow data sharing, was able to address the functional gaps of IMIS. However, the organisation today faces challenges that demand profound transformation beyond the capabilities of IMIS and its ancillary legacy systems currently being used. (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008) 1.2.2 The need for change The United Nations struggled to get everybody in their building to connect electronically. It soon realised that it was time to connect the world with a client-server network, (Rowe Davis, 1996: 122). The need for the United Nations to adopt the International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS) lead to the requirement of significant change in the accounting processes and systems in order to achieve compliance with the international public sector accounting standard. The requisites changes, indeed, were so fundamental that it is fair to say that the life of IMIS has come to an end after fourteen years since it was first implemented; moreover, the benefits that the staff and managers expect from the information system in day-to-day operations and decision-making no longer match the cost of maintenance and ongoing support. This is because IMIS is no longer able to cope with the fast technological development, and the cost of maintenance and ongoing support has become very expens ive. (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008) The success of your organisations quality initiative depends upon your ability to communicate the need for change throughout the organization, (Arcaro and Arcarco, 1997: 146). The United Nations as an organisation needs to improve the quality and cost-effectiveness of the services it provides. They report that the existing systems are not up to the standard, not integrated, duplicative, and are inefficient. (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008) According to the UN, the effective management, planning and decision-making have been hampered by the lack of integration and complete data on resources. (ibid) As the organisation continues to grow in complexity in its activities, they are dissatisfied with the lack of integration and data sharing between different departments as it has become a bigger problem, and the need for a new ICT global enterprise system for streamlining and simplifying processes has become more crucial as the nature of the organisation is changing itself. (ibid) 1.2.3 Goals and objectives of implementing an Enterprise Resource Planning System The United Nations reports that the implementation of an ERP system will present the opportunity to fully combine resources and functions across the organisation by replacing the existing IMIS system. (ibid) Minahan (1998) reports ERP to be a complex software system that ties together and automates the basic processes of business activities such as finance and budget management, human resources management, supply chain management, central support services, and other corporate core functions. Most importantly, the main value of an ERP system is the opportunity to streamline and improve the operations of an entire organisation through process reengineering, sharing of common data, and implementation of best practices and standards, and perform as the inter-organisation information backbone for communication and collaboration (OLeary, 2004). According to reports from the United Nations (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008), the main objectives of the ERP project can be summarised as follows: To have a global operating system that precisely captures core resource data from each department and agency at the UN while linking them together to provide better decision-making. This will minimize the time required to perform administrative processes and enable easy access to necessary reports for each department, thus increasing the efficiency of the organisation and directing the focus to high priority situations. The main functionalities sought from the new ERP system are expected to encompass functions such as programme planning, budgeting, contributions and performance; human resources management and administration; payroll, including management of benefits and contribution to pension, medical and insurance schemes; supply chain management, including procurement; assets and facilities management; general accounting, travel and other administrative flows; reporting to management and stakeholders, and more. (ibid) Specific United Nations peacekeeping operations functions such as logistics, transportation, fuel and rations systems need to be supported by the new ERP system as these functions are not held in common with other organisations of the United Nations operations. 1.3 Purpose and Significance of the Study The research done in this study will attempt to answer the following question: What will be the impact of ERP implementation on the business transformation and business culture of the United Nations? Specifically, the study will attempt to establish the relationship between the business process transformation and organisational culture change offered as the result of ERP. These questions and findings are expected to provide an increased ability in evaluating the performance and standardisation of the business processes within the United Nations, as well as an increased awareness of its effect on the business culture and productivity over time of the UN. In addition, answers to these questions will subsequently enable other researchers to gain more insight into ERP implementation and business process reengineering. It will also enable the management of the United Nations to see how ERP can be a better means of technological reform, thus providing the opportunity to re-evaluate the existing business processes even further. 1.4 Research Questions The question that constitutes the primary point of pivot for the paper is: What will be the probable future impact of ERP on the business process transformation and business culture of the United Nations? The three subsidiary questions of the present work are: > How will ERP implementation make the organisation better off in the foreseeable future? > What will be the effect on the reformed business culture in terms of productivity? > How does the organisation perceive the benefit of ERP on the standardisation of business processes? 1.5 Structural Approach The rest of the thesis has been structured as follows. Chapter 2 provides a review of relevant literature, including ERP, business process reengineering, and their impact on organisational culture. Chapter 3 discusses the methodologies used for the empirical analysis and describes the data and the various proxies employed for analysing ERP implementation in the United Nations. Chapter 4 provides empirical findings of the relationship between ERP implementation and its effects on business processes and organisational culture. Chapter 5 analyses the research findings. Chapter 6 concludes the research by pointing out the key impacts of ERP on the UN. Chapter 7 makes various recommendations for policy direction and potentially fruitful areas of ERP systems for further research. Chapter 8 reflects on the study as a whole. CHAPTER II 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW The following Literature Review will focus on four main areas of evaluation regarding enterprise resource planning (ERP) on the business process transformation (BPR) in organisations, and more specifically, the United Nations. These are: 1. ERP: definition, evolution, implications 2. BPR: definition, evolution, implications 3. ERP and organisational culture 4. BPR and organisational change This review will analyse the abovementioned systems and related processes insofar as the available data in the literature will allow for a comparison of ERP and BPR and their effects on the United Nations and other large organisations. 2.1 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): Definition, Evolution, and Implications Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems are commonly described as commercial software packages that allow the assimilation of data and processes throughout an organisation (Markus Tanis, 2000, cited in Kim et al., 2005). ERP enables the flow of information among all business areas such as finance, human resources, manufacturing, sales and marketing, (Tan and Theodorou, 2009: 52). Basically, it allows data from all departments to exist in one computer system (Pang, 2001), making the managerial dream of unification of all information systems into one computer system come true (Adam ODoherty, 2003, cited in Revia, 2007). This unification should offer many benefits to the UN and other large organisations. Large organisations may have a more difficult time relaying information from one sector to another as they have many different departments and even multiple locations. The combination of all department in one system, presents benefits of relaying data in a timely manner. Rather tha n sending files through inter-office mail or needing to track down one particular staff member, each employee will have access to the information required for their job by simply logging into the system. The researcher will attempt to discover whether this unification does indeed allow for more time-efficiency as well as making simple operations tasks easier to accomplish in the UN. The start of ERP systems came about in the 1960-1970s with the invention of Inventory Control (IC) and Materials Requirement Planning (MPR) systems, which managed inventory in manufacturing. In the 1980s, Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP II) systems came into use to manage both inventory and production requirements together. In 1973, the first ERP system was created with the goal of supporting all business needs. Since then, ERP systems have become much more popular. In fact, by the year 2000, enterprise resource planning systems were estimated to have serviced $23 billion USD in profits for the various organisations that have been implementing them (Pang, 2001). ERP applications are the largest, fastest growing and most influential in the industry (Corbett Finney, 2007). This is probably why the UN has shown such interest in ERP. The increase in ERP implementation does not seem surprising as ERP allows corporations to update to a new integrated system cutting out the previous legacy systems known for their difficulties in maintenance, large size, and old age, as they are segregated systems (Martin, 1998; cited in Boudreau, 1999). This appears to be helpful for the UN as they reported difficulty with their current legacy system (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). It is likely that employees of the UN will be satisfied with the replacement of the legacy system due to the reported problems it has. However, there is a chance that employees may be intimidated by this change as they will have to learn an entirely new system. Advantages of ERP systems for organisations include overcoming fragmentation by streamlining activities and processes, which provides direct access to real-time information by supplying a group of software modules that encase all departments of a business (Koch, 2003, cited in Corbett Finney, 2007). This appears to be an accurate statement due to the convenience of having all departments existing together. This implies that all information accessed through the new system will be current as it is constantly being updated by various employees based on the tasks they complete. Rather than there being pieces of information in various places, all information regarding the same issue will be together implying that employees can look in one place and have all the information they need rather than searching through various documents or consulting multiple co-workers. This aspect of ERP systems will be investigated at the UNDP in Kosovo in order to determine whether this feature is benefici al. Furthermore, ERP systems are said to provide cost-reduction in addition to increased flexibility (Siriginidi, 2000 cited in Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, and Eldabi, 2008). These two benefits appear to be linked as decreasing operation costs would imply having more flexibility to perform other processes. For the UN, this would mean more money to use for their peacekeeping missions or other operations. However, flexibility does not depend on cost-reduction. Its possible for the availability of data to imply flexibility in making decisions or flexibility could result from rearranging the organisations processes and being better equipped to perform certain tasks. ERP systems have been reported to enhance business performance by accelerating the merger of organisational resources as well as strengthening the operational efficiency of the company through minimising human error (Shin Knapp, 2001, cited by Wang, 2006). The implication that ERP reduces human error seems to be correct as there is les s opportunity to make a mistake for employees because there is generally only one time they need to input information for data-sharing as opposed to the multiple steps needed to take before. These benefits should assist the UN in accomplishing some of their proposed goals such as linking all departments within one operations system, which decreases the time required for administrative processes. The UN hopes implementation will increase their operational efficiency by allowing valuable time to be spent focusing on high priority situations rather than simple operations tasks (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). More advertised benefits include improved information accuracy and decision-making capacity (Siriginidi, 2000 cited in Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, and Eldabi, 2008). The UN wants to make use of these proposed advantages (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). Decision-making is a large part of the UN as they have to make difficult decisions everyday that effect large numbers of p eople; making a bad decision is not necessarily easily corrected in this case. Furthermore, many situations the UN deals with are time-sensitive; if its easier to access data, and the accuracy of that data is improved, officials can rest assured that they are making decisions with proper knowledge. In implementing ERP, organisations no longer have to create their own applications that are then unique to their company. They now have standard software available for their business processes, referred to as Best Business Practices (BBP). BBPs came into existence around the same time as ERPs. BBPs are general guidelines to assist companies in the way of handling certain business processes, meaning that each company can now improve itself on the basis of the experience of other corporations that share similar functional processes (SAP, 2007, cited by Revia, 2007). It seems any organisation would be hesitant to implement a system that has not proved to benefit other large organisations as the risks of failure are high (source). BBPs should definitely help the UN as they will be benefitting from previous experiences of other corporations. Some of the disadvantages of ERP are that the implementation requires time, costs and risks (Boudreau, 1999), as they tend to be large, complicated, and expensive (Mabert et al., 2001, cited by Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, and Eldabi, 2008: 3). ERP implementation calls for serious time commitment from all involved as it is often the biggest project that an organisation will ever face (Moon, 2007). ERP execution requires new procedures, employee training and managerial and technical support (Shang Seddon, 2002, cited by Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, Eldabi, 2008), which can be accomplished through good communication of the corporate strategy to all employees (Umble et al., 2003, cited by Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, and Eldabi, 2008). Consequently, the biggest problem is not actually the implementation itself but the expectations of board members and senior staff as well as not having a clear plan or realistic projections (Somers Nelson 2004, cited by Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, and Eldabi, 2008). However, the UN ha s already proposed clear goals and plans for their implementation. The question is whether or not they will be able to successfully translate these goals/plans to all employees of the organisation and whether or not they will be successful. Finally, the importance of selecting the appropriate ERP package is stressed. Corporations must make sure they select the appropriate ERP package that will match their organisation as well as its business processes (Chen, 2001, cited in Corbett Finney, 2007). This seems obvious as every organisation is different. Some corporations strategise around providing excellent customer service while others focus on decreasing costs to customers as a way to attract more business. However, there are studies that show that customising ERP packages beyond minimal adjustments is discouraged; these studies show that organisations should adjust their processes to fit the package rather than adjust the package to fit the processes (Murray Coffin, 2001 cited in Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, Eldabi, 2008). 2.2 Business Process Transformation (BPR): Definition, Evolution, and Implications Business process reengineering (BPR) was not very popular until the release of the book Re-engineering the Corporation by Michael Hammer and James Champy (Barker, 1995). Hammer and Champy introduced the term Business process reengineering in 1990 and defined it as a fundamental redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical areas such as cost, quality, service and speed (Hammer, 1990). Business process reengineering is also defined as a strategic redesign of important business processes, including the systems and policies that support them, in order to achieve maximum productivity of an organisation (Manganelli Klein, 1994). This would suggest a link between ERP and BPR as they are both structured around the redesign of core business processes. In fact, some goals of BPR are the reduction of cost, cycle-time, defects, and the increase of worker productivity (Hales Savoie, 1994), very much the same as ERP. The aim of BPR is to change current business pro cesses in order to make them more efficient overall, again mimicking ERP. In fact, Some researchers suggest that ERP systems are the major tools for making business processes better, leaner and faster through associated business process reengineering, (Shang Seddon, 2003, cited in Revia, 2007: 25). It is not yet known whether or not BPR will be performed at the UN. It is assumed that it will as it is so closely related to ERP. Additionally, reports have shown that ERP often causes BPR to occur due to its very nature (Martin et al., 1999). It seems that in order for ERP to be most successful, BPR should be performed (Sumner, 2000 cited by Law Ngai, 2007), otherwise the UN may not recognize exactly which processes are most important for their operations. Or, they may not be fully aware of the exact way in which ERP should be performed in relation to the core business processes, which is vital to understand for the selection of the proper ERP package. BPR has its origins in the private sectors as a management tool for companies to deal with change and reorganise their work to improve customer service, cut operational costs, and become world-class competitors, (Hamid, 2004, cited in Wang, 2006: 5). Generally, business process transformation takes business processes and allows the m to be done routinely through a computer system. It incorporates peoples perspectives and input to make sure that the processes fit needs specific to each corporation (Wang, 2006). This suggests benefits for ERP implementation in any organisation as the systems are supposed to be designed around core processes specific to each company. It would be helpful for the UN to determine which processes are vital to their operations. Furthermore, cutting operational costs should prove to be very valuable for the UN as many of the services it provides are non-profit. If BPR is performed as a result of ERP, it seems that cost reduction will be achieved. Here is a further look into what a core business process is: A core business process is one that gives value to the customers or stakeholders of the company. These are the most important processes within the organisation and are the ones that will set a company above their competitors if done well. In order to figure out what processes are cor e, one may ask the following questions. 1) Does the process make valued contributions to the customer? Does it improve customer service, increase response-time, decrease customers costs? 2) Is it important for the production/operation of the company? 3) Can it be used for other businesses? If the answer is yes to one of these questions, then the process under consideration can be considered core (McHugh, Merli, Wheeler, 1995). The UN may consider any process involving cash flow to be core as that is a huge component to many of the services they provide. Furthermore, any documentation of information from one department to another is probably considered core as this organisation relies on data-sharing for its decision-making capabilities. Therefore, it seems that these types of processes will be affected by ERP implementation and will most likely be reengineered. The three most basic strategies that increase a business success are lowering prices, offering more value in products, or focusing on less diversity in commodities and specialising in a certain area (Berrington Oblich, 1995). This suggests that BPR would be structured around these strategies when reorganizing core business processes. If the UN is restructuring using BPR, they are likely to focus on a combination of strategies. As already mentioned, the cost of operations is a huge factor for the United Nations to consider as they provide aid to many countries without expecting any favours in return. This implies they would focus on reduction of costs. However, the main reason they are an organisation is to provide services to those in need. That would suggest they would reorganise their business processes around the strategy of offering more value in their services. In implementing BPR, organisations are asked to choose five or six of the processes that are central to the operation of the company and focus on those to see the ways in which they can make them more efficient (McHugh, Merli, Wheeler, 1995). Concentrating on making sure core processes are completed to the best of the companys ability only ensures the organisation will do better. In the case of the UN, focusing on data-sharing and managing cash flow suggests an increase in the efficiency of the organisation as those components are vital to their operation. These changes would suggest benefits for both the cost-reduction strategy as well as providing better service to customers. 2.3 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Organisational Culture Organisational culture is a set of core beliefs, values, and behaviours shared by all members of one company, thereby affecting the productivity of the business. It is often described as a pattern of shared assumptions produced and manipulated by top management (Schein, 1992 cited by Boersma Kingma, 2005: 131). Organisational culture is influenced through many aspects, including leadership, personal characteristics, interactions of members, as well as tradition. Culture has visible signs and hidden insinuations. Visible signs include behaviour while the hidden insinuations entail morals and beliefs (Rousseau, 1990 cited by Cooper, 1994). The culture of an organisation is even displayed in the way certain processes are done as well as the outcomes of these processes, which will be examined at the UNDP in Kosovo. Because ERP systems involve most departments in a company, they change many business processes and thereby affect the more deep-seated organisational culture of a corporation . Companies that focus on incorporating their cultures into organisational efforts are said to have an edge in accordance with their productivity. Organisations can focus on culture and work with the people to shape new values, morals and work ethics. If employees are happy to be working for the organisation, they will be more apt to want to work, implying there will be an increase in productivity (Farbrother Marc, 2003). Enterprise resource planning can lead to changes in organisational culture i.e., ERP is implemented in order to increase productivity by changing current business processes (Deal Kennedy, 1982 cited by Cooper, 1994). These changes are maximal and cannot be simply brushed aside. When a company implements ERP, if the organisational culture is ready for the changes it will bring, the employees can work with the system to increase productivity. Consequently, the culture within the business must be one that can be made amenable for change (Nah et al., 2001 cited in Co rbett Finney, 2007). There is the belief that positive and supportive attitudes of those embarking on implementation of ERP will actually bring about a successful transition (Chatterjee et al., 2002 cited in Law Ngai, 2007). However, if the culture has not been made ready for change or the employees are unwilling to change, the system will be less likely to succeed. A system cannot work if there are no users. System implementation represents a threat to users perceptions of control over their work and a period of transition during which users must cope with differences between old and new work systems, (Bobek Sternad, 2002: 285). The social setting of a company and its technology most definitely shape each other; they are hardly independent of one another (Boersma Kingma, 2005). A mistake companies frequently make is to presume that people can change their habits easily when in actuality such changes are considerably taxing for many people. These companies underestimate the effect ERP implementation will have on their employees. Many employees panic when nothing looks the way it used to, nothing works the way it used to, and they can no longer go through their workday with the previously earned sense of familiarity and assurance (Koch, 2007 cited in Revia, 2007). One study showed that it took over two years for users of the new system to forget the process problems they found initially and to gain new knowledge of the system (Seddon Shang, 2003 cited in Revia, 2007). A Chief Information Officer from Nestle sums up this concept very well—she says, No major software implementation is really about the software. Its about change management†¦You are changing the way people work†¦You are challenging their principles, their beliefs and the way they have done things for many, many years (Boersma Kingma, 2005: 123). It seems the best way to ensure that employees are on board with proposed changes is to make them aware of these changes. It is important for them to feel that they are included in the decision to create new values and procedures for the company. Otherwise, they will be clinging on to the old culture and ways of doing things. The change will be stressful and forced rather than welcomed with ease. They should feel that the change is happening because of them rather than happening to them. The most senior level of management initiates enterprise resource planning, but its success depends on its acceptance by the companys ordinary workers (Obolensky, 1996). Cultures can be manipulated by those in management (Handy, 1985 cited by Cooper, 1994). Change can be intimidating and needs to be managed well. Therefore, the conclusion is drawn that managers need to make sure each and every employee is doing their part. This literature suggests that leaders are the most important players in any c hange scenario. Employees wont decide to change their behavi Concepts of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Concepts of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) CHAPTER I 1.0 Introduction This paper will labour to explicate the intricacies of enterprise resource planning (ERP), a concept that has long fascinated many in both academic and professional work environments. The United Nations (UN) has expressed the need to implement ERP. As part of their examination into this procedure, the UN has implemented ERP at the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in Pristine, Republic of Kosovo, and other agencies of the UN. As they look into the ramifications of ERP implementation, so does this case study. This study attempts to make predictions of the impact of ERP implementation on the business processes and organisational culture of the United Nations secretariat based on results from the UNDP. 1.1 Introduction to the Problem Since the latter part of the 1990s, firms have rushed to implement enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, e.g., one study showed that more than sixty percent of Fortune 500 companies had adopted an ERP system (G. Stewart et al., 2000). The United Nations, as one of the largest organisations in the world, has lagged behind in adopting the transformation in the management of its resources. The United Nations has been seriously hampered its ability to deliver results effectively and efficiently due to the lack of an integrated information system for managing its resources (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). According to Davis and Olsen (1985), ERP is an integrated system that provides information to support operation management and decision making functions in an organisation. Therefore, the goal of implementing an ERP system and business process reengineering (BPR) is to build an integrated global information system that fully supports the needs of the United Nations, enables the effective management of human, financial and physical resources, and is based on streamlined processes and better practices. (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008) 1.2 Background of the Study 1.2.1 Existing System Currently the United Nations uses an in-house developed system—commonly referred to as Integrated Management Information System (IMIS)—for the management of human, financial and physical resources. The development of IMIS was a milestone in the use of information technology as a discipline that can beneficially affect many if not all areas of administration and management in any given organisation. IMIS was developed as a functionally integrated system, which combines all the departments to support key processes such as human resources management, payroll, finance and accounting, requisitioning and funds control, budget execution and travel management. IMIS was introduced in conjunction with desktop, networked computing and office automation tools such as electronic mail in all offices where IMIS was being used. If an organisation is not yet sure of the need for client-server networks, the state of the art in enterprise-wide computing, it has only to consider the Integrated Management Information System (IMIS) of the United Nations, (Rowe Davis, 1996: 122). The launching of IMIS was subsequently affected and conditioned by major developments in the technological market, and an accelerated shift of focus in the United Nations to field activities. In short, IMIS was designed and developed at a time when the context began to change rapidly and profoundly. Yet, only a few years after the implementation of IMIS, it has become evident that the system cannot take full advantage of the advancement in technology; e.g., even though IMIS is functionally integrated, it was deployed and managed locally at each geographical location, which makes reporting and global management very difficult. The implementation in the United Nations peacekeeping operation was partial, as it is a separate department in t he UN, and was not able to support the supply chain and logistical management. (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008) The IMIS was not an alternative communication technology to paper and telephones, but it involved the synchronization of multiple data sources and the linking of them to several mainframes, (Rowe Davis, 1996: 122). An investment in tactical systems, which includes a stand-alone system and a modular integration into IMIS through interfaces, a bridging system between two different systems to allow data sharing, was able to address the functional gaps of IMIS. However, the organisation today faces challenges that demand profound transformation beyond the capabilities of IMIS and its ancillary legacy systems currently being used. (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008) 1.2.2 The need for change The United Nations struggled to get everybody in their building to connect electronically. It soon realised that it was time to connect the world with a client-server network, (Rowe Davis, 1996: 122). The need for the United Nations to adopt the International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS) lead to the requirement of significant change in the accounting processes and systems in order to achieve compliance with the international public sector accounting standard. The requisites changes, indeed, were so fundamental that it is fair to say that the life of IMIS has come to an end after fourteen years since it was first implemented; moreover, the benefits that the staff and managers expect from the information system in day-to-day operations and decision-making no longer match the cost of maintenance and ongoing support. This is because IMIS is no longer able to cope with the fast technological development, and the cost of maintenance and ongoing support has become very expens ive. (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008) The success of your organisations quality initiative depends upon your ability to communicate the need for change throughout the organization, (Arcaro and Arcarco, 1997: 146). The United Nations as an organisation needs to improve the quality and cost-effectiveness of the services it provides. They report that the existing systems are not up to the standard, not integrated, duplicative, and are inefficient. (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008) According to the UN, the effective management, planning and decision-making have been hampered by the lack of integration and complete data on resources. (ibid) As the organisation continues to grow in complexity in its activities, they are dissatisfied with the lack of integration and data sharing between different departments as it has become a bigger problem, and the need for a new ICT global enterprise system for streamlining and simplifying processes has become more crucial as the nature of the organisation is changing itself. (ibid) 1.2.3 Goals and objectives of implementing an Enterprise Resource Planning System The United Nations reports that the implementation of an ERP system will present the opportunity to fully combine resources and functions across the organisation by replacing the existing IMIS system. (ibid) Minahan (1998) reports ERP to be a complex software system that ties together and automates the basic processes of business activities such as finance and budget management, human resources management, supply chain management, central support services, and other corporate core functions. Most importantly, the main value of an ERP system is the opportunity to streamline and improve the operations of an entire organisation through process reengineering, sharing of common data, and implementation of best practices and standards, and perform as the inter-organisation information backbone for communication and collaboration (OLeary, 2004). According to reports from the United Nations (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008), the main objectives of the ERP project can be summarised as follows: To have a global operating system that precisely captures core resource data from each department and agency at the UN while linking them together to provide better decision-making. This will minimize the time required to perform administrative processes and enable easy access to necessary reports for each department, thus increasing the efficiency of the organisation and directing the focus to high priority situations. The main functionalities sought from the new ERP system are expected to encompass functions such as programme planning, budgeting, contributions and performance; human resources management and administration; payroll, including management of benefits and contribution to pension, medical and insurance schemes; supply chain management, including procurement; assets and facilities management; general accounting, travel and other administrative flows; reporting to management and stakeholders, and more. (ibid) Specific United Nations peacekeeping operations functions such as logistics, transportation, fuel and rations systems need to be supported by the new ERP system as these functions are not held in common with other organisations of the United Nations operations. 1.3 Purpose and Significance of the Study The research done in this study will attempt to answer the following question: What will be the impact of ERP implementation on the business transformation and business culture of the United Nations? Specifically, the study will attempt to establish the relationship between the business process transformation and organisational culture change offered as the result of ERP. These questions and findings are expected to provide an increased ability in evaluating the performance and standardisation of the business processes within the United Nations, as well as an increased awareness of its effect on the business culture and productivity over time of the UN. In addition, answers to these questions will subsequently enable other researchers to gain more insight into ERP implementation and business process reengineering. It will also enable the management of the United Nations to see how ERP can be a better means of technological reform, thus providing the opportunity to re-evaluate the existing business processes even further. 1.4 Research Questions The question that constitutes the primary point of pivot for the paper is: What will be the probable future impact of ERP on the business process transformation and business culture of the United Nations? The three subsidiary questions of the present work are: > How will ERP implementation make the organisation better off in the foreseeable future? > What will be the effect on the reformed business culture in terms of productivity? > How does the organisation perceive the benefit of ERP on the standardisation of business processes? 1.5 Structural Approach The rest of the thesis has been structured as follows. Chapter 2 provides a review of relevant literature, including ERP, business process reengineering, and their impact on organisational culture. Chapter 3 discusses the methodologies used for the empirical analysis and describes the data and the various proxies employed for analysing ERP implementation in the United Nations. Chapter 4 provides empirical findings of the relationship between ERP implementation and its effects on business processes and organisational culture. Chapter 5 analyses the research findings. Chapter 6 concludes the research by pointing out the key impacts of ERP on the UN. Chapter 7 makes various recommendations for policy direction and potentially fruitful areas of ERP systems for further research. Chapter 8 reflects on the study as a whole. CHAPTER II 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW The following Literature Review will focus on four main areas of evaluation regarding enterprise resource planning (ERP) on the business process transformation (BPR) in organisations, and more specifically, the United Nations. These are: 1. ERP: definition, evolution, implications 2. BPR: definition, evolution, implications 3. ERP and organisational culture 4. BPR and organisational change This review will analyse the abovementioned systems and related processes insofar as the available data in the literature will allow for a comparison of ERP and BPR and their effects on the United Nations and other large organisations. 2.1 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): Definition, Evolution, and Implications Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems are commonly described as commercial software packages that allow the assimilation of data and processes throughout an organisation (Markus Tanis, 2000, cited in Kim et al., 2005). ERP enables the flow of information among all business areas such as finance, human resources, manufacturing, sales and marketing, (Tan and Theodorou, 2009: 52). Basically, it allows data from all departments to exist in one computer system (Pang, 2001), making the managerial dream of unification of all information systems into one computer system come true (Adam ODoherty, 2003, cited in Revia, 2007). This unification should offer many benefits to the UN and other large organisations. Large organisations may have a more difficult time relaying information from one sector to another as they have many different departments and even multiple locations. The combination of all department in one system, presents benefits of relaying data in a timely manner. Rather tha n sending files through inter-office mail or needing to track down one particular staff member, each employee will have access to the information required for their job by simply logging into the system. The researcher will attempt to discover whether this unification does indeed allow for more time-efficiency as well as making simple operations tasks easier to accomplish in the UN. The start of ERP systems came about in the 1960-1970s with the invention of Inventory Control (IC) and Materials Requirement Planning (MPR) systems, which managed inventory in manufacturing. In the 1980s, Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP II) systems came into use to manage both inventory and production requirements together. In 1973, the first ERP system was created with the goal of supporting all business needs. Since then, ERP systems have become much more popular. In fact, by the year 2000, enterprise resource planning systems were estimated to have serviced $23 billion USD in profits for the various organisations that have been implementing them (Pang, 2001). ERP applications are the largest, fastest growing and most influential in the industry (Corbett Finney, 2007). This is probably why the UN has shown such interest in ERP. The increase in ERP implementation does not seem surprising as ERP allows corporations to update to a new integrated system cutting out the previous legacy systems known for their difficulties in maintenance, large size, and old age, as they are segregated systems (Martin, 1998; cited in Boudreau, 1999). This appears to be helpful for the UN as they reported difficulty with their current legacy system (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). It is likely that employees of the UN will be satisfied with the replacement of the legacy system due to the reported problems it has. However, there is a chance that employees may be intimidated by this change as they will have to learn an entirely new system. Advantages of ERP systems for organisations include overcoming fragmentation by streamlining activities and processes, which provides direct access to real-time information by supplying a group of software modules that encase all departments of a business (Koch, 2003, cited in Corbett Finney, 2007). This appears to be an accurate statement due to the convenience of having all departments existing together. This implies that all information accessed through the new system will be current as it is constantly being updated by various employees based on the tasks they complete. Rather than there being pieces of information in various places, all information regarding the same issue will be together implying that employees can look in one place and have all the information they need rather than searching through various documents or consulting multiple co-workers. This aspect of ERP systems will be investigated at the UNDP in Kosovo in order to determine whether this feature is benefici al. Furthermore, ERP systems are said to provide cost-reduction in addition to increased flexibility (Siriginidi, 2000 cited in Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, and Eldabi, 2008). These two benefits appear to be linked as decreasing operation costs would imply having more flexibility to perform other processes. For the UN, this would mean more money to use for their peacekeeping missions or other operations. However, flexibility does not depend on cost-reduction. Its possible for the availability of data to imply flexibility in making decisions or flexibility could result from rearranging the organisations processes and being better equipped to perform certain tasks. ERP systems have been reported to enhance business performance by accelerating the merger of organisational resources as well as strengthening the operational efficiency of the company through minimising human error (Shin Knapp, 2001, cited by Wang, 2006). The implication that ERP reduces human error seems to be correct as there is les s opportunity to make a mistake for employees because there is generally only one time they need to input information for data-sharing as opposed to the multiple steps needed to take before. These benefits should assist the UN in accomplishing some of their proposed goals such as linking all departments within one operations system, which decreases the time required for administrative processes. The UN hopes implementation will increase their operational efficiency by allowing valuable time to be spent focusing on high priority situations rather than simple operations tasks (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). More advertised benefits include improved information accuracy and decision-making capacity (Siriginidi, 2000 cited in Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, and Eldabi, 2008). The UN wants to make use of these proposed advantages (Report of the Secretary-General, 2008). Decision-making is a large part of the UN as they have to make difficult decisions everyday that effect large numbers of p eople; making a bad decision is not necessarily easily corrected in this case. Furthermore, many situations the UN deals with are time-sensitive; if its easier to access data, and the accuracy of that data is improved, officials can rest assured that they are making decisions with proper knowledge. In implementing ERP, organisations no longer have to create their own applications that are then unique to their company. They now have standard software available for their business processes, referred to as Best Business Practices (BBP). BBPs came into existence around the same time as ERPs. BBPs are general guidelines to assist companies in the way of handling certain business processes, meaning that each company can now improve itself on the basis of the experience of other corporations that share similar functional processes (SAP, 2007, cited by Revia, 2007). It seems any organisation would be hesitant to implement a system that has not proved to benefit other large organisations as the risks of failure are high (source). BBPs should definitely help the UN as they will be benefitting from previous experiences of other corporations. Some of the disadvantages of ERP are that the implementation requires time, costs and risks (Boudreau, 1999), as they tend to be large, complicated, and expensive (Mabert et al., 2001, cited by Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, and Eldabi, 2008: 3). ERP implementation calls for serious time commitment from all involved as it is often the biggest project that an organisation will ever face (Moon, 2007). ERP execution requires new procedures, employee training and managerial and technical support (Shang Seddon, 2002, cited by Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, Eldabi, 2008), which can be accomplished through good communication of the corporate strategy to all employees (Umble et al., 2003, cited by Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, and Eldabi, 2008). Consequently, the biggest problem is not actually the implementation itself but the expectations of board members and senior staff as well as not having a clear plan or realistic projections (Somers Nelson 2004, cited by Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, and Eldabi, 2008). However, the UN ha s already proposed clear goals and plans for their implementation. The question is whether or not they will be able to successfully translate these goals/plans to all employees of the organisation and whether or not they will be successful. Finally, the importance of selecting the appropriate ERP package is stressed. Corporations must make sure they select the appropriate ERP package that will match their organisation as well as its business processes (Chen, 2001, cited in Corbett Finney, 2007). This seems obvious as every organisation is different. Some corporations strategise around providing excellent customer service while others focus on decreasing costs to customers as a way to attract more business. However, there are studies that show that customising ERP packages beyond minimal adjustments is discouraged; these studies show that organisations should adjust their processes to fit the package rather than adjust the package to fit the processes (Murray Coffin, 2001 cited in Al-Fawaz, Al-Salti, Eldabi, 2008). 2.2 Business Process Transformation (BPR): Definition, Evolution, and Implications Business process reengineering (BPR) was not very popular until the release of the book Re-engineering the Corporation by Michael Hammer and James Champy (Barker, 1995). Hammer and Champy introduced the term Business process reengineering in 1990 and defined it as a fundamental redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical areas such as cost, quality, service and speed (Hammer, 1990). Business process reengineering is also defined as a strategic redesign of important business processes, including the systems and policies that support them, in order to achieve maximum productivity of an organisation (Manganelli Klein, 1994). This would suggest a link between ERP and BPR as they are both structured around the redesign of core business processes. In fact, some goals of BPR are the reduction of cost, cycle-time, defects, and the increase of worker productivity (Hales Savoie, 1994), very much the same as ERP. The aim of BPR is to change current business pro cesses in order to make them more efficient overall, again mimicking ERP. In fact, Some researchers suggest that ERP systems are the major tools for making business processes better, leaner and faster through associated business process reengineering, (Shang Seddon, 2003, cited in Revia, 2007: 25). It is not yet known whether or not BPR will be performed at the UN. It is assumed that it will as it is so closely related to ERP. Additionally, reports have shown that ERP often causes BPR to occur due to its very nature (Martin et al., 1999). It seems that in order for ERP to be most successful, BPR should be performed (Sumner, 2000 cited by Law Ngai, 2007), otherwise the UN may not recognize exactly which processes are most important for their operations. Or, they may not be fully aware of the exact way in which ERP should be performed in relation to the core business processes, which is vital to understand for the selection of the proper ERP package. BPR has its origins in the private sectors as a management tool for companies to deal with change and reorganise their work to improve customer service, cut operational costs, and become world-class competitors, (Hamid, 2004, cited in Wang, 2006: 5). Generally, business process transformation takes business processes and allows the m to be done routinely through a computer system. It incorporates peoples perspectives and input to make sure that the processes fit needs specific to each corporation (Wang, 2006). This suggests benefits for ERP implementation in any organisation as the systems are supposed to be designed around core processes specific to each company. It would be helpful for the UN to determine which processes are vital to their operations. Furthermore, cutting operational costs should prove to be very valuable for the UN as many of the services it provides are non-profit. If BPR is performed as a result of ERP, it seems that cost reduction will be achieved. Here is a further look into what a core business process is: A core business process is one that gives value to the customers or stakeholders of the company. These are the most important processes within the organisation and are the ones that will set a company above their competitors if done well. In order to figure out what processes are cor e, one may ask the following questions. 1) Does the process make valued contributions to the customer? Does it improve customer service, increase response-time, decrease customers costs? 2) Is it important for the production/operation of the company? 3) Can it be used for other businesses? If the answer is yes to one of these questions, then the process under consideration can be considered core (McHugh, Merli, Wheeler, 1995). The UN may consider any process involving cash flow to be core as that is a huge component to many of the services they provide. Furthermore, any documentation of information from one department to another is probably considered core as this organisation relies on data-sharing for its decision-making capabilities. Therefore, it seems that these types of processes will be affected by ERP implementation and will most likely be reengineered. The three most basic strategies that increase a business success are lowering prices, offering more value in products, or focusing on less diversity in commodities and specialising in a certain area (Berrington Oblich, 1995). This suggests that BPR would be structured around these strategies when reorganizing core business processes. If the UN is restructuring using BPR, they are likely to focus on a combination of strategies. As already mentioned, the cost of operations is a huge factor for the United Nations to consider as they provide aid to many countries without expecting any favours in return. This implies they would focus on reduction of costs. However, the main reason they are an organisation is to provide services to those in need. That would suggest they would reorganise their business processes around the strategy of offering more value in their services. In implementing BPR, organisations are asked to choose five or six of the processes that are central to the operation of the company and focus on those to see the ways in which they can make them more efficient (McHugh, Merli, Wheeler, 1995). Concentrating on making sure core processes are completed to the best of the companys ability only ensures the organisation will do better. In the case of the UN, focusing on data-sharing and managing cash flow suggests an increase in the efficiency of the organisation as those components are vital to their operation. These changes would suggest benefits for both the cost-reduction strategy as well as providing better service to customers. 2.3 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Organisational Culture Organisational culture is a set of core beliefs, values, and behaviours shared by all members of one company, thereby affecting the productivity of the business. It is often described as a pattern of shared assumptions produced and manipulated by top management (Schein, 1992 cited by Boersma Kingma, 2005: 131). Organisational culture is influenced through many aspects, including leadership, personal characteristics, interactions of members, as well as tradition. Culture has visible signs and hidden insinuations. Visible signs include behaviour while the hidden insinuations entail morals and beliefs (Rousseau, 1990 cited by Cooper, 1994). The culture of an organisation is even displayed in the way certain processes are done as well as the outcomes of these processes, which will be examined at the UNDP in Kosovo. Because ERP systems involve most departments in a company, they change many business processes and thereby affect the more deep-seated organisational culture of a corporation . Companies that focus on incorporating their cultures into organisational efforts are said to have an edge in accordance with their productivity. Organisations can focus on culture and work with the people to shape new values, morals and work ethics. If employees are happy to be working for the organisation, they will be more apt to want to work, implying there will be an increase in productivity (Farbrother Marc, 2003). Enterprise resource planning can lead to changes in organisational culture i.e., ERP is implemented in order to increase productivity by changing current business processes (Deal Kennedy, 1982 cited by Cooper, 1994). These changes are maximal and cannot be simply brushed aside. When a company implements ERP, if the organisational culture is ready for the changes it will bring, the employees can work with the system to increase productivity. Consequently, the culture within the business must be one that can be made amenable for change (Nah et al., 2001 cited in Co rbett Finney, 2007). There is the belief that positive and supportive attitudes of those embarking on implementation of ERP will actually bring about a successful transition (Chatterjee et al., 2002 cited in Law Ngai, 2007). However, if the culture has not been made ready for change or the employees are unwilling to change, the system will be less likely to succeed. A system cannot work if there are no users. System implementation represents a threat to users perceptions of control over their work and a period of transition during which users must cope with differences between old and new work systems, (Bobek Sternad, 2002: 285). The social setting of a company and its technology most definitely shape each other; they are hardly independent of one another (Boersma Kingma, 2005). A mistake companies frequently make is to presume that people can change their habits easily when in actuality such changes are considerably taxing for many people. These companies underestimate the effect ERP implementation will have on their employees. Many employees panic when nothing looks the way it used to, nothing works the way it used to, and they can no longer go through their workday with the previously earned sense of familiarity and assurance (Koch, 2007 cited in Revia, 2007). One study showed that it took over two years for users of the new system to forget the process problems they found initially and to gain new knowledge of the system (Seddon Shang, 2003 cited in Revia, 2007). A Chief Information Officer from Nestle sums up this concept very well—she says, No major software implementation is really about the software. Its about change management†¦You are changing the way people work†¦You are challenging their principles, their beliefs and the way they have done things for many, many years (Boersma Kingma, 2005: 123). It seems the best way to ensure that employees are on board with proposed changes is to make them aware of these changes. It is important for them to feel that they are included in the decision to create new values and procedures for the company. Otherwise, they will be clinging on to the old culture and ways of doing things. The change will be stressful and forced rather than welcomed with ease. They should feel that the change is happening because of them rather than happening to them. The most senior level of management initiates enterprise resource planning, but its success depends on its acceptance by the companys ordinary workers (Obolensky, 1996). Cultures can be manipulated by those in management (Handy, 1985 cited by Cooper, 1994). Change can be intimidating and needs to be managed well. Therefore, the conclusion is drawn that managers need to make sure each and every employee is doing their part. This literature suggests that leaders are the most important players in any c hange scenario. Employees wont decide to change their behavi